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Rosa Parks
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was an American activist in the civil rights movement, best known for her pivotal role in the Montgomery bus boycott. The United States Congress has honored her as "the first lady of civil rights" and "the mother of the freedom movement". [1]
Parks's act of defiance and the Montgomery bus boycott became important symbols of the movement. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation, and organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon and Martin Luther King Jr. At the time, Parks was employed as a seamstress at a local department store and was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. She had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for training activists for workers' rights and racial equality. Although widely honored in later years, she also suffered for her act, she was fired from her job and received death threats for years afterwards. [5] Shortly after the boycott, she moved to Detroit, where she briefly found similar work. From 1965 to 1988, she served as secretary and receptionist to John Conyers, an African-American US Representative. She was also active in the black Power movement and the support of political prisoners in the US.
After retirement, Parks wrote her autobiography and continued to insist that there was more work to be done in the struggle for justice. [6] She received national recognition, including the NAACP's 1979 Spingarn Medal, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Gold Medal, and a posthumous statue in the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall. Upon her death in 2005, she was the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda. California and Missouri commemorate Rosa Parks Day on her birthday, February 4, while Ohio, Oregon, and Texas commemorate the anniversary of her arrest, December 1. [7]
Zwijanie się liści pomidora - rak bakteryjny
Rak bakteryjny pomidora jest chorobą niezwykle niebezpieczną dla upraw pomidorów. Przeważnie źródłem infekcji bakteriami są porażone nimi nasiona lub gleba, do której je wysiewamy. Przyczyną infekcji może też być człowiek, który przenosi bakterie na powierzchni rąk lub używanych narzędzi ogrodniczych z jednej rośliny na drugą podczas zabiegów pielęgnacyjnych.
Objawy porażenia rakiem bakteryjnym pomidora przeważnie występują kilka tygodni po posadzeniu rozsady lub w fazie zawiązywania owoców. Charakterystyczne objawy to zwijanie się liści pomidora, które poprzedzają nieodwracalne więdnięcie rośliny. Więdniecie rozpoczyna się w dolnej części rośliny i najczęściej szybko postępuje ku górze. Częste jest również więdnięcie pojedynczych listków liści złożonych tylko po jednej stronie ogonka liściowego oraz z jednej strony łodygi podczas gdy druga strona listków czy rośliny wydaje się być zdrowa. Na silnie porażonych roślinach można zaobserwować pęknięcia, rakowate rany i śluzowate wycieki. Na owocach mogą zaś pojawić się małe ciemne plamy otoczone jasną obwódką o średnicy około 2 mm. Do wystąpienia objawów na owocach dochodzi jednak bardzo rzadko.
Zwijanie się liści pomidora w wyniku porażenia rakiem bakteryjnym
Do tej pory nie udało się wyhodować odmian odpornych na raka bakteryjnego pomidora. Doświadczenia pokazują jedynie, iż odmiany samokończące i te, których nie trzeba uszczykiwać, chorują zdecydowanie rzadziej.
W Polsce nie ma preparatu, umożliwiającego skuteczne zwalczanie raka bakteryjnego pomidora. Dlatego jedyne wyjście to zainfekowane rośliny usunąć i spalić. W żadnym wypadku nie wolno wrzucać ich do kompostu. Wszystkie narzędzia, które miały styczność z zainfekowanymi roślinami należy zdezynfekować (np. gorącym octem). Profilaktyczne, zdrowe jeszcze rośliny, opryskuje się preparatami miedziowymi, np. Miedzian 50 WP lub środkami zawierającymi ekstrakt grejpfruta, np. Biosept Active 33 SL, Grevit 200 SL, Septovital 200 SL. Preparaty te mogą powstrzymywać dalsze namnażanie się bakterii i rozwój choroby ale nie eliminują jej. Dlatego po zakończeniu uprawy wszystkie pozostałe rośliny także należy usunąć i spalić, a wnętrze szklarni i różne elementy wyposażenia należy odkazić jednym z dezynfektantów o działaniu bakteriobójczym, np. Agrosteril 110 SL.
Early life
Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913, to Leona (née Edwards), a teacher, and James McCauley, a carpenter. In addition to African ancestry, one of Parks's great-grandfathers was Scots-Irish, and one of her great-grandmothers was a part–Native American slave. [8] [9] [10] [11] As a child, she suffered from chronic tonsillitis and was often bedridden, the family could not afford to pay for an operation to address the condition. [12] : 12 When her parents separated, she moved with her mother to her grandparents' farm outside Pine Level, where her younger brother Sylvester was born. [12] : 12–13 Rosa joined the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), a century-old independent black denomination founded by free blacks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the early nineteenth century, [13] [14] and remained a member throughout her life. [15] : 6
McCauley attended rural schools [16] until the age of eleven. Before that, her mother taught her "a good deal about sewing." She started piecing quilts from around the age of six, as her mother and grandmother were making quilts, she put her first quilt together by herself around the age of ten, which was unusual, as quilting was mainly a family activity performed when there was no field work or chores to be done. She learned more sewing in school from the age of eleven, she sewed her own "first dress [she] could wear". [17] As a student at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery from 1925 to 1928, she took academic and vocational courses. As the school closed in 1928, she transferred to Booker T. Washington Junior High School for her final year. [15] : 10 Parks went on to a laboratory school set up by the Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes for secondary education, but dropped out to care for her grandmother and later her mother, after they became ill. [12] : 23–27 [18]
Around the turn of the 20th century, the former Confederate states had adopted new constitutions and electoral laws that effectively disenfranchised black voters and, in Alabama, many poor white voters as well. Under the white-established Jim Crow laws, passed after Democrats regained control of southern legislatures, racial segregation was imposed in public facilities and retail stores in the South, including public transportation. Bus and train companies enforced seating policies with separate sections for blacks and whites. School bus transportation was unavailable in any form for black schoolchildren in the South, and black education was always underfunded.
Parks' arrest and bus boycott
Montgomery buses: law and prevailing customs
In 1900, Montgomery had passed a city ordinance to segregate bus passengers by race. Conductors were empowered to assign seats to achieve that goal. According to the law, no passenger would be required to move or give up their seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other seats were available. Over time and by custom, however, Montgomery bus drivers adopted the practice of requiring black riders to move when there were no white-only seats left. [32]
The first four rows of seats on each Montgomery bus were reserved for whites. Buses had "colored" sections for black people generally in the rear of the bus, although blacks composed more than 75% of the ridership. The sections were not fixed but were determined by placement of a movable sign. Black people could sit in the middle rows until the white section filled. If more whites needed seats, blacks were to move to seats in the rear, stand, or, if there was no room, leave the bus. [33]
Black people could not sit across the aisle in the same row as white people. The driver could move the "colored" section sign, or remove it altogether. If white people were already sitting in the front, black people had to board at the front to pay the fare, then disembark and reenter through the rear door. [33]
For years, the black community had complained that the situation was unfair. Parks said, "My resisting being mistreated on the bus did not begin with that particular arrest. I did a lot of walking in Montgomery." [16]
One day in 1943, Parks boarded a bus and paid the fare. She then moved to a seat, but driver James F. Blake told her to follow city rules and enter the bus again from the back door. When Parks exited the vehicle, Blake drove off without her. [34] Parks waited for the next bus, determined never to ride with Blake again. [35]
